Spread of Islam

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The Spread of Islam

Holy War

A holy war is a war declared or fought for a religious or high moral purpose, as to extend or defend a religion.

According to Islamic tradition, it was in Mecca at age 40, in the month of Rammadan, where Muhammad received his first revelation from God. Three years after this event, Muhammad began preaching these revelations publicly, proclaiming that "God is One", that complete "surrender" to Him is man's religion and that he was a prophet and messenger of God, in the same vein as Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, David, Jesus and other prophets before him.

Muhammad gained few followers early on, and was largely met with hostility from the tribes of Mecca; he was treated harshly and so were his followers. To escape persecution, Muhammad and his followers migrated to Medina in the year 622. This historic event, the Hiijra, marks the beginning of the Islamic Calendar. In Medina, Muhammad managed to unite the conflicting tribes, and after eight years of fighting with the Meccan tribes, his followers, who by then had grown to ten thousand, conquered Mecca. By 632, the year Muhammad dies, most of Arabia had converted to Islam.

It was manifestly the thought of Abu Bekr, the successor of Mohammed, that a campaign of conquest was intended by his chief and that the responsibility of carrying out that intention rested upon him.

An army was dispatched to Syria, the first of a series of remarkable campaigns in which, under his successors, Syria, Persia, and North Africa were conquered. The ancient kingdom of Persia was overrun and some of the fairest provinces of the Roman Empire were seized. the disciples with irresistible zeal carried their faith and sway throughout Arabia, across Syria, Egypt, Tunis, Tripoli, Algeria, Morocco, and into Spain. At the same time Persia was brought under the sway of the prophet, while preachers of Islam were making converts in Canton and Western China and in parts of India.

It is impossible here to explain at length or to attempt a description m detail of the tremendous energy and enthusiasm of the armies of Islam, as they swept with fanatical energy and zeal, North, East and West, conquering everything that blocked their way and creating within a century after the death of the prophet an empire greater in extent than that of Rome at the height of its power. It is probably true that, in most if not in every instance of conquest, the offer of Islam was made to the unbelievers. If they accepted, they were expected to join the ranks of the invaders. If they refused to embrace the religion of their threatening foe, they might be put to the sword or compelled to pay heavy tribute for the privilege of continuing to live. Even to the present day, this custom of an annual tax to a Mohammedan Government is in practice and is required of all non-Moslem subjects that they may have the right to live. It is called the life tax.

Mecca and Medina

The first battle between the Muslims of Medina and the tribes of Mecca in 624, took place near Badr, a small town southwest of Medina. This first battle had several important effects. In the first place, the Muslim forces were outnumbered three to one as they routed the Meccans. Secondly, the discipline displayed by the Muslims brought home to the Meccans, perhaps for the first time, the abilities of the man they had previously treated harshly for his beliefs.

A year later the tribes of Mecca sought revenge and attacked Medina. A fiersome army of three thousand men crossed paths with Muhammad's Muslims at Uhud, a ridge outside Medina. The Muslims were largely defeated and the Prophet himself was wounded. Two years later a 10,000 man army attacked the Muslim Medina again to finally finish them off. It didn't end that way though. At the Battle of the Trench, also known as the Battle of the Confederates, the Muslims scored a decisive victory by introducing a new form of defense. On the side of Medina from which attack was expected they dug a trench too deep for the Meccan cavalry to clear without exposing itself to the archers posted behind objects on the Medina side. After an inconclusive siege, the Meccans were forced to retire. Thereafter Medina was entirely in the hands of the Muslims once again.

Following the Battle of the Trench, Muhammad effectively built up a series of alliances among the tribes with the Bedouins and by 628 he and fifteen hundred followers and was able to demand access to the Ka'bah during negotiations with the Meccans. This was a milestone in the history of the Muslims. A year later, in 629, he reentered and conquered Mecca without bloodshed and in a spirit of tolerance which established an ideal for future conquests. He also destroyed the idols in the Ka'bah, to put an end forever to pagan practices there. At the same time Muhammad won the allegiance of 'Amr ibn al-'As, the future conqueror of Egypt, and Khalid ibn al-Walid, the future "Sword of God," both of whom embraced Islam and joined Muhammad. From the oasis cities of Makkah and Madinah in the Arabian desert, the message of Islam went forth with electrifying speed.

Spreading "The Message"

Arab tribes rebelled against Abu Bakr after he took leadership. The tribes, refusing to follow or answer to anyone other than Muhammad. Many proponents to the new leadership believed that Ali, the son-in-law of the Prophet Muhammad should have been appointed their leader. This belief led to the Shia sect of the Muslim religion. Abu Bakr insisted that allegiance to Muhammad meant loyalty to the Muslim state, of which he was the new head. This was the start of the Ridda Wars where Muslims reclaimed control and cleansed the budding empire. After restoring power and control of Arabia Abu Bakr directed his eyes toward the Byzantine and Sassanid empires.

Conquest of Persia: 633-651 Early in 634, Caliph Abu Bakr issued summons for holy war and sent a force under the great Khalid to attack lower Iraq. He routed the Persian detachment and received the submission of the Arab Christians of Hira and fortress of Anbar. At this time Khalid was withdrawn from the Persian front and was ordered to proceed to Syria. General Muthanna remained on the front to deal with a vigorous Persian counter-offensive, led by the Sassanid General Rustom. Near the ruins of Babylon, he fell upon the Mujahideen. Persian elephants spread terror among Mujahideen cavalry and the ' Battle of Bridge ' (Nov. 634) ended in a disastrous setback to Muslims, injuring .Muthanna fatally and he died later Sa'ad ibn Abi Wakkas, a seasoned warrior, who had fought at Badar and Uhud, was given the assignment of Persia by Caliph Omar. Rustom marched out of Ctesiphon and Mujahideen on the plain of Kadisiya, near Hira. The battle which was fought for four days in 637, was won by Mujahideen as Muslim lancers had discovered how to deal with the elephants by firing at their eyes and trunks. Rustom was killed. Beaten army retreated to Ctesiphon but the capital was ill fitted to stand a siege. The King and the court fled to Hulwan and Muslims occupied Ctesiphon, one of the finest cities in Asia, almost without resistance. Sa'ad pursued the enemy across the Tigris, beat Persians at Jalula and drove King Yazdegird from Hulwan also. Yazdegird who had retired to holy city Ray and there summoned the nation to a crusade against Muslims, Persians moved from Ray through Hamadan to Tigris. At Nihavand they encountered with Mujahideen, from the garrison of Basra and Kufa. Persians were completely routed. Later, Aizerbaijan was also conquered by Muslims The Persians were defeated decisively in 637 and their empire was so overrun in the next few years that by 643 the boundaries of the Caliphate touched the frontiers of India. In the west the Byzantine province of Egypt had fallen in 640-641. and territories of Inner Mongolia, Bukhara, Tashkand and Samarqand were annexed by 650.

Byzantine-Arab Wars: 634-750 Islam's first caliph Abu Bakr dies at Medina August 23 at age 61 and is succeeded by Mohammed's 52-year-old adviser Omar (or Umar), whom he has selected and who will reign until 644, conquering Syria, Persia, and Egypt in a "holy war" against the Byzantine empire which was the far eastern part of the former Roman Empire. This was the prelude to the Crusades

The Siege of Constantinople n 674 was a major conflict of the Byzantine-Arab Wars, and was one of the numerous times Constantinople's defenses were tested. The battle was fought by the Muslim Umayyad Caliph. In this battle, the Umayyads, unable to breach the Theodosian walls, blockaded the city along the River Bosporus. The approach of winter forced the Muslims to withdraw to an island 80 miles away. The Byzantine Empire unleashed a devastating new weapon that came to be known as "Greek Fire", at the Battle of Syllaeum , the Byzantine Naval ships utilized it to decisively defeat the Umayyad navy, lifting the siege in 678. This victory ended the Umayyad expansion towards Europe for almost thirty years.

Conquest of Ancient Transoxiana: 662-709 During the war with the Persian Empire the new nation of Islam had internal conflicts that resulted in basic civil war among factions over the who should lead the faith. Ali had taken the role and had been assassinated In the end this eventually led to the Umayyad dynasty of Caliphs. After the long war in Persia the Muslim religion conquest moved northeast and the army of Islam spread "the message" to modern day Iran, Afghanistan and into Uzbeckistan. Transoxiana is an obsolete name used for the portion of Central Asia corresponding approximately with modern-day Uzbekistan, Tajikistan and southwest Kazakhstan . Geographically, it means the region between the Amu Darya and Syr Darya rivers. Afghanistan proved to be an area of resistance for the Muslim Army. The Arabs were unable to succeed in converting the population because of constant revolts from the mountain tribes in the Afghan area. The Pushtun tribes of Afghanistan and Pakistan were slow to convert and continued to live and follow their life based on their set codes of honor.

Conquest of Sindh: 664-712 Province of southeastern Pakistan. It is bordered by the provinces of Balochistan on the west and north, Punjab on the northeast, the Indian states of Rajasthan and Gujarat to the east, and the Arabian Sea to the south. Sindh is essentially part of the Indus River delta and has derived its name from that river, which is known in Pakistan as the Sindhu. By 232 BCE, the region came under the Greco- Bactrians based in modern day Afghanistan. The leaders who were very much influenced by the Hellenistic Greeks culture and also Buddhism. The rulers converted to Buddhism and spread it in the region. Sindh was heavily influenced from everyone from the Huns to the Persians and each had some form of control in the area. This all changed with the arrival of the Muslim Forces that conquered the local Hindu King and took control of Sindh. The Caliphate Umar was notified of the poor condition of the conquered people and he stopped the conquest at the Indus River Valley. Later Muslim leaders also stopped future invasions as the geography and people seemed to be nonessential to the Muslim Empire. The Arabs redefined the region and adopted the term budd to refer to the numerous Buddhist idols they encountered. The Muslim invasion coincided with the conquest of Central Asia. Muhammad bin Qasim led led the army and conquered all of what is today Pakistan and was in Kashmir after only three years of conquest.

Conquest of Iberian Peninsula (Hispania): 711-718 During this period the Muslim Empire looked Westward toward modern day Spain and Portugal. Led by the Moors (African and Arab Muslim), the Muslim empire in eight years defeated the Germanic Goths and Christians who had ruled the area since the weakened rule of the Roman empire over 2oo years prior

Conquest of the Caucasus: 711-750 Caucasus is the region in Eurasia bordered in the North by what is modern Russia and in the Southwest by Turkey. To the West is the Black Sea and to the East the Caspian Sea. The South of the Area is modern day Iran. It was a logical expansion for the Muslim Empire considering the previous conquests. There were many battles waged in this region between the Muslim Arabs and the Khazar people. Even though Khazars were excellent warriors and imposed their rule over several warlike peoples, Khazaria was one of the most pacific states in the world, and had the most advanced justice system. Far from being an expansionist state, has played a role of fundamental importance in stopping Muslim expansionism. Indeed, Arabs conquered westwards all the North-African lands up to the Atlantic Ocean and ruled over Spain, having even crossed the Pyrenees, but they were unable to enlarge their northern border and cross over the Caucasus, because they were repeatedly defeated by the Khazars in the Khazar-Arab wars (7th and 8th centuries c.e.). Khazaria prevented Islam from spreading north of the Caucasus Mountains and as a result of this, all of Eastern Europe was not overrun by the Arabs and become Islamic. The Khazar people were an unusual phenomenon for Medieval times. Surrounded by savage and nomadic tribes, they had all the advantages of the developed countries: structured government, vast and prosperous trading, and a permanent army.

End of the Umayyad Caliphate: 718-750 The Umayyad Muslims established a military government in Syria and used the country primarily as a base of operations. They lived aloof from the people and at first made little effort to convert Christians to Islam. The Umayyads administered the lands in the manner of the Byzantines, giving complete authority to provincial governors. During the 89 years of Umayyad rule, most Syrians became Muslims, and the Arabic language replaced Aramaic. The Umayyads minted coins, built hospitals, and constructed underground canals to bring water to the towns. The country prospered both economically and intellectually. Foreign trade expanded, and educated Jews and Christians, many of them Greek, found employment in the Caliphal courts, where they studied and practiced medicine, alchemy, and philosophy. The Umayyads saw a great expansion of Islamic empire and were responsible for building a highly efficient and lasting governmental structure. The Umayyad caliphs could be startlingly brilliant both militarily and politically. And there is no question, that Islamic material and artistic culture has its roots in the Umayyad dynasty and the courts of Umayyad power. The first Umayyad caliph, Mu'awiyya, also introduced a new method of selecting caliphs. The caliphate was a unique institution in that the caliph was elected by a small group of powerful tribal leaders. Mu'awiyya convinced the most powerful to recognize his son, Yazid, as the next caliph. Technically, Yazid was still elected; in reality, he was selected by his father to succeed him. This would become the model of caliphal succession�the reigning caliph would name his successor and the notable would elect that named successor. So the Umayyad caliphate was essentially a hereditary dynasty. It is for this reason that Islamic historians do not call the Umayyad period a caliphate, but rather use the term "kingdom"

With the death of Mu'awiyya in 680 and the succession of his son, Yazid, a second civil war broke out with the followers of 'Ali. Yazid had some of the administrative effectiveness of Mu'awiyya, but none of the moral restraint and certainly no portion of the hilm that characterized his father. Anxious to force 'Ali's son, Husayn, to recognize his authority, Yazid eventually killed Husayn and a handful of his followers at Karbala in Iraq The Arabian people were by now scattered all over the Islamic world. Two tribes based in Syria, the Qays and the Kalb, rallied around two separate candidates for caliph: Marwan ibn al-Hakam and Ibn al-Zubayr. A bitter war was fought between the two tribes and Marwan, backed by the Kalbites, became caliph in 684 and founded a new Umayyad dynasty. But because he died a year later, the reconquest of Islamic lands would fall to his son 'Abd al-Malik, who ruled from 685 to 705 (65-86 AH). When 'Abd al-Malik became caliph, all of Arabia was under the control of his rival, Ibn al-Zubayr, while much of Iraq had fallen under the control of a rebel named al-Mukhtar. al-Mukhtar was defeated by Ibn al-Zubayr and, in 692, 'Abd al-Malik defeated Ibn al-Zubayr at Mecca. So desperate was he for victory, that he showered Mecca and the Ka'aba with catapults and freely destroyed the holy place. His victory cemented Umayyad control over Islam; however, both the Shi'a and the Kharjites would remain powerful oppositional forces.

None of the remaining Marwani caliphs enjoyed long reigns except for Hisham, who ruled from 724-744 (105-132). During this period, the Muslims expanded out of Spain and into France until their advance was finally stopped by the Franks in 736.

When Hisham died in 743, the empire collapsed into a series of rebellions mostly by disaffected non-Arabs and by the Kharjites. It was one such rebellious group, the 'Abassids, that would finally overthrow the dynasty. The 'Abassids were descendants of al-Abbas, the paternal uncle of Muhammad. Like the followers of 'Ali and the Kharjites, the 'Abassids believed that the spirit of Islam had been betrayed by the secular-minded Umayyads�as relatives of Muhammad, their pietism had a concrete character to it.

It was when the 'Abassids allied themselves with the 'Alids that the death-knell of Umayyad power was sounded. With their combined forces, they defeated the last of the Marwani calphis, Marwan II (744-750/127-32), who was later murdered. The leader of the 'Abassids, Abu'l-'Abbas, went about systematically and ruthlessly killing as many Umayyads as he could find.

The 'Abassid Caliphate (758-1258) was founded on two disaffected Islamic populations: non-Arabic Muslims and Shi'ites. For the most part, the Islamic impetus to the Abassid revolution lay in the secularism of the Umayyad caliphs. The Umayyads had always been outsiders�as a wealthy clan in Mecca, they had opposed Muhammad�and the secularism and sometime degeneracy that accompanied their caliphate delegitimized their rule for many devout Muslims. What made the 'Abassid seizure of the caliphate unique was the heavy reliance on client Muslims, or mawali. The mawali were foreigners who had converted to Islam; because, however, they were foreigners they could not be incorporated into the kinship-based society of Arabs. They had to be voluntarily included into the protection of a clan, that is, they had to become "clients" of the clan (which is what the word mawali means). For the most part, they were second-class citizens even though they were Muslims. By the beginning of the ninth century, the caliph's control over the Islamic world was beginning to crumble. It was into this increasingly bleak picture that al-Mamun suddenly appeared.

al-Mamun seized the caliphate in 813. He tried to incorporate Shi'ites into the Islamic government, but his entire reign was spent in quelling disturbances among Shi'ites and anti-Shi'ites. There are, however, two great innovations that irrevocably changed the course of Islamic history.

1. The first was a military revolution begun by his brother, al-Mu'tasim. The constant revolutions and the deep division in Islamic society convinced al-Ma'mun that he needed a military force whose only loyalty was to him. So his brother, who would later become caliph (833-842 / 218-27), assembled a military force of slaves, called Mamluks. Many of the Mamluks were Turkish, who were famous for the horsemanship. But the Mamluk military also consisted of Slavs and some Berbers. By the middle of al-Wathiq's reign, the Mamluk army had completely displaced the Arabian and Persian army under the caliph.

2. More importantly, al-Ma'mun energetically patronized Greek, Sanskrit and Arabic learning and so altered the cultural and intellectual face of Islam. He adopted a radical theological position, called Mu'tazilism, which was regarded as somewhat heretical by more orthodox Muslims. Nevertheless, Mu'tazilism had as one of its fundamental beliefs the idea that Muslims should obey a single ruler. In order to facilitate the spread of Mu'tazilite teaching, al-Ma'mun established a university, the House of Wisdom (Bayt al-Hikma ).

Conquest of Sudan: 700-900 Muslim expansion looked toward Africa again and the Armies of Islam conquered Sudan between the 7th and 9th centuries. Sudan�s history goes back thousands of years before Christ and is almost as old as the Nile itself. The Cush kingdom of the Old Testament was located in present-day northern Sudan, and for thousands of years the center of power along the Nile shifted between Egypt and Sudan. The sixth century saw the rise of Christianity in Sudan. The Sudanese had a large Christian population that over time converted from Christianity to Islam.

Conquest of Italy: 831-902 In 831, the Arabs conquered Palermo and in 902 they conquered Taormina, ending the conquest of Sicily. They likewise established their presence on the peninsula, especially on the Garigliano and in Bari. The story of the incessant conflicts of the states of the Mezzogiorno is chaotic until the arrival of the Normans in the early eleventh century (1016). Under their leadership, the Christians of the south found themselves eventually united, the Arabs expelled, and the whole Mezzogiorno subjugated to the Hauteville dynasty of kings of Sicily (1130).

Conquest of Anatolia: 1060-1360 Because of its location at the point where the continents of Asia and Europe meet, Anatolia was, from the beginnings of civilization, a crossroads for numerous peoples migrating or conquering from either continent. One of the great crossroads of ancient civilizations is a broad peninsula that lies between the Black and Mediterranean seas. Called Asia Minor (Lesser Asia) by the Romans, the land is the Asian part of modern Turkey, across Thrace. It lies across the Aegean Sea to the east of Greece and is usually known by its Greek name Anatolia. Contacts between the Turks and Arabs commenced at the beginning of the 8th century and some of the Turks began to favour Islam. However the pro-Arab policies of the Omayads (661-750 A.D) restricted these relations somewhat. Later, many Moslem Turks took office in the Abbside government and because of this, great interest in the Islamic world spread among the Turks beyond the River Ceyhun. Commercial caravans also played a major role in the spread of Islam into the steppes of Central Asia. The Turks became fully Moslem by the 10th century, and this resulted in the achievement to political unity. Following these developments, the first Moslem Turkish state was formed by the Karahans. The year 1071 is considered to be the beginning of the Turks and that of Islam Anatolia. It is following this date that the Turks fully conquered the whole of Anatolia and established the Anatolian Seljuk state there as a part of the great Seljuk Empire.

Byzantine-Ottoman Wars: 1299-1453 A series of battles were waged between the Islamic Turks and Byzantines that led to the end of the Byzantine Empire. The Byzantine Empire was spread thin in regional conflicts with Serbia, the Latin Empire and others. This proved to be an advantageous opportunity for the Islamic Turks to expel the Byzantine Armies out of the region and bring an end to the empire. The Byzantine empire, ruling from Constantinople, whose emperor at this time was Alexius Comnenus. To his East, the Turks were rapidly encroaching on his empire, and had begun attacking pilgrims on their way to - and in - Jerusalem. He wrote to his friend Robert, the Count of Flanders, in 1093, telling him about supposed atrocities committed by the Turks on the Christian pilgrims, and Robert passed this letter on to Pope Urban II. Urban, an opportunist, saw this as a perfect way to solve some of his problems. He personally promoted a Holy Crusade to reclaim the Holy Lands from the barbarian Turks. Thus, the First Crusade was launched in 1096 As the death of the Byzantine rule was realized the birth of the Ottoman Empire had occurred. As the Ottoman Turks began taking land from the Empire, they were seen as liberators of Anatolians and many soon converted to Islam undermining the Byzantine's Orthodox power base. The Crusades were first undertaken in 1096 and ended in the late 13th century. The term Crusade was originally applied solely to European efforts to retake from the Muslims the city of Jerusalem, which was sacred to Christians as the site of the crucifixion of Jesus Christ. It was later used to designate any military effort by Europeans against non-Christians. The Ottomans were able to raise large numbers of troops. Initially, their raiding gave them great support from other Turks near Osman's small domain. In time however, as the Turks began to settle in land poorly defended by the Byzantines, they were able to exploit the hardships of the peasant classes by recruiting their aid. Those that did not assist the Ottomans were raided themselves. Eventually, the cities in Asia Minor, cut off from the outside surrendered and the Ottomans soon mastered the art of siege warfare. The fall of Constantinople came as a shock to the Papacy which ordered an immediate counter-attack in the form of a crusade. Only Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy responded but under the condition that a powerful Monarch assist him. None would do so. Pope Pius II then ordered another crusade. Again, no substantial efforts were seen by any of Europe's major leaders of the time. This forced the Pope himself to lead a Crusade. His death in 1464 led to the disbanding of the Crusade at the port of Ancona. Constantinople remained under Ottoman Empire control and is only known as the name provided by the Turkish people themselves as Istanbul. The Ottoman empire lasted until 1922. The gateway to the Holy Lands was under Muslim Control

Further conquests: 1200-1800

In 1250, the short-lived Ayyubid dynasty (established by Saladin) was overthrown by slave regiments, and a new dynasty - the Mamluks - was born. The Mamluks soon expanded into Palestine, expelled the remaining Crusader states and repelled the Mongols from invading Syria. Thus they united Syria and Egypt for the longest period of time between the Abbasid and Ottoman empires (1250-1517).